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Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
NOx is a collective term used to refer to two species of oxides of nitrogen: nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Annual mean concentrations of NO2 in urban areas are generally in the range 10-45 ppb (20-90 µgm-3). Levels vary significantly throughout the day, with peaks generally occurring twice daily as a consequence of "rush hour" traffic. Maximum daily and one hourly means can be as high as 200 ppb (400 µgm-3) and 600 ppb (1200 µgm-3) respectively.
Globally, quantities of nitrogen oxides produced naturally (by bacterial and volcanic action and lightning) far outweigh anthropogenic (man-made) emissions. Anthropogenic emissions are mainly due to fossil fuel combustion from both stationary sources, i.e. power generation (21%), and mobile sources, i.e. transport (44%). Other atmospheric contributions come from non-combustion processes, for example nitric acid manufacture, welding processes and the use of explosives.
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
SO2 is a colourless gas. It reacts on the surface of a variety of airborne solid particles, is soluble in water and can be oxidised within airborne water droplets.
Annual mean concentrations in most major UK cities are now well below 35 ppb (100 µgm-3) with typical mean values in the range of 5-20 ppb (15-50 µgm-3). Hourly peak values can be 400-750 ppb (1000-2000 µgm-3) on infrequent occasions. Natural background levels are about 2 ppb (5 µgm-3).
The most important sources of SO2 are fossil fuel combustion, smelting, manufacture of sulphuric acid, conversion of wood pulp to paper, incineration of refuse and production of elemental sulphur. Coal burning is the single largest man-made source of SO2 accounting for about 50% of annual global emissions, with oil burning accounting for a further 25-30%.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon Monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is slightly lighter than air.
Natural background levels of CO fall in the range of 10-200 ppb. Levels in urban areas are highly variable, depending upon weather conditions and traffic density. 8-hour mean values are generally less than 10 ppm (12 mgm-3) but have been known to be as high as 500 ppm (600 mgm-3).
CO is an intermediate product through which all carbon species must pass when combusted in oxygen (O2). In the presence of an adequate supply of O2 most CO produced during combustion is immediately oxidised to carbon dioxide (CO2). However, this is not the case in spark ignition engines, especially under idling and deceleration conditions. Thus, the major source of atmospheric CO is the spark ignition combustion engine. Smaller contributions come from processes involving the combustion of organic matter, for example in power stations and waste incineration.
Ozone (O3)
O3 is the tri-atomic form of molecular oxygen. It is a strong oxidising agent, and hence highly reactive.
Background levels of O3 in Europe are usually less than 15 ppb but can be as 100 ppb during summer time photochemical smog episodes. In the UK ozone occurs in higher concentrations during summer than winter, in the south rather than the north and in rural rather than urban areas.
Most O3 in the troposphere (lower atmosphere) is formed indirectly by the action of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide - there are no direct emissions of O3 to the atmosphere. About 10 - 15% of tropospheric O3 is transported from the stratosphere where it is formed by the action of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on O2. In addition to O3, photochemical reactions involving sunlight produce a number of oxidants including peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide, as well as secondary aldehydes, formic acid, fine particulates and an array of short lived radicals. As a result of the various reactions that take place, O3 tends to build up downwind of urban centres where most of NOx is emitted from vehicles.
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