The main difference is that the Russian nobility took governmental positions while French nobility was removed from government positions.
<span><u>written constitution = </u><u>after unification</u>
<em /><em>During revolutions in 1848-1849, the Frankfurt Parliament had produced a constitution for a unified Germany, but that move was rejected at the time by the king of Prussia, to whom the constitution was offered. </em>
<u>300 German states = </u><u>before unification</u>
<em>The German states had a long history of sovereignty in their individual territories. <u>Unification</u> meant bringing all those states together into one national entity.
</em>
<u>trade facilitated in the region = </u><u>before unification</u>
<em>The Zollverein, or customs union, was created between the German states in the 1830s. This eliminated customs tariffs between states and was a step that began moving in the direction of unification.
</em>
<u>risk of French aggression = </u><u>before unification</u>
<em>Germany became a united empire after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. Victory over France in that war by the German states operating as a coalition was part of what brought about unification.
</em>
<u>boundaries changed by Napoleon = </u><u>before unification</u>
<em>When Napoleon conquered territories throughout Europe in the early 1800s, he rearranged borders to enhance his empire's management of conquered territories. In the German states, this made them work together in ways they had not before, and was a catalyst toward desires for unification.
</em>
<u>two-house legislature = </u><u>after unification</u>
<em /><em>There was a legislature in the North German Confederation (1867-1870), which preceded unification. But that was a single-house (unicameral) parliament, whereas the Reichstag (legislature) of the unified German Empire was bicameral.</em>
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C, it destroyed important railroads that supplied Confederate forces.
Tycho Brahe
1609
Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630), a student of Tycho Brahe, publishes Astronomia Nova (New Astronomy), which contain his first two laws of planetary motion. Kepler's first law assumes that Mars has an elliptical orbit, which was a revolutionary idea at the time. Until then, the classical belief held that a circle was perfect, and therefore all orbits must be circular.
1609
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) observes Mars with a primitive telescope, becoming the first person to use it for astronomical purposes.
1659
The Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens (1629 - 1695) draws Mars using an advanced telescope of his own design. He records a large, dark spot on Mars, probably Syrtis Major. He notices that the spot returns to the same position at the same time the next day, and calculates that Mars has a 24 hour period.
1666
Giovanni Cassini (1625 - 1712) observes Mars and determines that the rotational period, or length of one Mars day is 24h, 40m.
1672
Huygens is the first to notice a white spot at the south pole, probably the southern polar cap.
1698
Huygens publishes Cosmotheros, which discusses what is required of a planet to support life, and speculates about intelligent extraterrestrials. This is one of the first published expositions of extraterrestrial life.
Historical Perspective...
The Trial of Galileo
The 1600s were not an easy time in which to study science. The church was a powerful institution and had its own ideas about the nature of the universe. Galileo was a beliver in the Copernican theory that the solar system revolves around the sun. He was advised by Cardinal Bellarmino to be cautious and not to imply the the Copernican theory were real. He published a book, Siderius Nuncius (Starry Messenger) which was considered controversial and in opposition with the ideas of the Roman Catholic Church, and was arrested and tried in the Inquisition. Galileo was found guilty of heresy and was sentenced to life imprisonment and forced to recant. In secret, he wrote another book, which was smuggled out of the country and published in France. His work is now considered the foundation of modern physics.
