Answer:
Affirmative action is a system of policies that have been adopted in the United States as a way to protect and ensure the rights of minorities, especially those who historically have been denied certain benefits due to their race, most often, and gender, as a second factor. These are some of the cases that have been in favor, and against, affirmative action:
In favor:
Grutter vs. Bollinger, 2003. This case demanded a review of the point system adopted at the University of Michigan, which favored minorities over white students, and initially was accepted as constitutional.
Fisher vs. University of Texas, 2016. Again a system that favored minorities in the admissions process, in this case the top ten percent, and which the Supreme Court upheld in favor of the school in a second review.
Marco DeFunis Jr. vs. Odegaard. 1974. This case was against the University of Washington Law School and although the white student who sued the school entered it, he denounced irregularities in the admissions process in favor of minority students over white and better qualified ones. In the end, the Court ruled that the case was moot.
University of California vs. Bakke. 1978. Though a case that goes for and against affirmative action, it is a landmark because the Court held that in Bakke´s case, the medical school had indeed applied discrimination against the student, but stated that race could be used as an admissions factor, under certain limitations.
Against:
University of California vs. Bakke . 1978. (Explained above).
Fisher vs. University of Texas (two cases). 2016. Initially voted in favor of Abigail Fisher against the school for discrimination, but changed later on a second review.
Gratz vs. Bollinger. 2003. Accepted the error in the point system of the school, and accepted the lawsuit of Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher.
Hopwood vs. Texas. 1996. It was the first effective legal action against affirmative action ever.
