Answer:
Causal association is defined as two events in which one event leads to the cause/development of the second event such as the consumption of trans-fats and the onset of heart disease. In order to show the causal association, it is necessary to ensure that the 3 criteria of temporality, consistency, and strength are satisfied with respect to the relationship between consumption of trans fats and heart disease. According to this example involving the relationship between trans-fats and heart disease, temporality could be satisfied if one is consuming an excessive amount of foods containing trans-fats such asFrench fries, and who then ends up suffering from heart disease. In order to fulfill the criteria of strength, statistical tests would need to be performed in order to establish that there is a positive correlation between the individuals who consume trans-fats 10 times per week are shown to develop and require treatment for heart disease 90% of the time. Lastly, consistency may be fulfilled by showing that the same results are occurring despite applying the same testing measures on different groups of individuals during various increments. By applying the same tests on different groups, the chances of creating false-positives within the study can be significantly lowered. Numerous studies can be used to determine whether meaningful statements regarding the causal relationship between two factors can be established. By performing multiple studies on individuals’ eating habits and their health outcomes, researchers may then determine whether a relationship exists between the health challenges that they are faced with and the items that they consume.
Explanation:
Q1. The answer is <span>c. a mechanism of evolution.
</span>
Natural selection is the differences in survival and reproduction as the consequence of differences in phenotypes. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, natural selection is the only factor that affects a frequency of different variations and it is the only mechanism of evolution.
Q2. The answer is c. interactions between individuals.
Organisms interact with other organisms or abiotic factors in some system. The interaction <span>between individuals affects their regular distribution. For example, if two groups are in competition for resources, to maximize resource utilization, they will probably live in different areas or will defend territory. Also, some symbiotic organisms are expect to be distributed similarly.</span>
