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In Griffin v. California, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination not only allows a criminal defendant to refuse to take the witness stand during his trial, but it also bars the prosecutor from urging the jury to interpret that silence as an indication that the defendant has something to hide. The Court reasons that the right against self-incrimination would be meaningless if a defendant’s exercise of the right could be used against him.
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hey mari!!
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On July 28, 1868, the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified. The amendment grants citizenship to "all persons born or naturalized in the United States" which included former slaves who had just been freed after the Civil War. The amendment had been rejected by most Southern states but was ratified by the required three-fourths of the states. Known as the "Reconstruction Amendment," it forbids any state to deny any person "life, liberty or property, without due process of law" or to "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
Other groups tried to use the 14th Amendment to further their causes. Women attempted to use it to proclaim their right to vote, and African Americans tried to use it as well. On May 18, 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson that "separate but equal" facilities were considered sufficient to satisfy the 14th Amendment. It wasn't until May 17, 1954, however, that the Court reversed the Plessy decision, bringing the era of government-sanctioned segregation to an end.
It was the 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, which finally gave African Americans the right to vote. It states that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." In practice, however, it took almost 100 more years and the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to remove barriers such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation that prevented African Americans and other people of color from freely exercising their right to vote. Note that the 15th amendment makes no mention of sex. It was not until the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920 that women were explicitly given the vote.
There are many road hazards while driving, some more dangerous than others. Driving in the rain boasts a varity of hazards. One is loosing traction. Tires are made of rubber and when water (rain) is in between them and the concrete road surface, it can be very slippery. It is always a good idea to drive the speed limit and pay attention especially in the rain. Hydroplaning is when the vehicles tire skids above a puddle of water and pulls the car one direction or another. This can be very bad especially at high speeds because it esentially means that the vehicle is spinning out and the rate of crashing at that moment is very high. If the vehicle starts to skid, turn the wheel towards the skid to try and regain control of the vehicle. Driving in rain is also dangerous because it is physically darker outside meaning that it is harder for other cars to see your vehicle as well as for you to see them. With this being said, it is highly recommended and also the law in some states, to drive with the head lights on during rain. Driving in the snow is pretty similar to the rain. You must be cautious. Below 40 degrees it is possible for ice to form on the roads which is alot more slippery because it becomes a solid. When the vehicle is slidding on ice, putting the vehicle into nuetral to help slow down can be used (if slidding at low speed with no other vehicles around). It is also important to have good windshield wipers and tires to be prepared for the conditions. Having good tires that are made for the terrain is the safest prevention tactic. When tires are newer they still have their tread which is grooves built in to grip the road better. After driving for a while the tires will wear, and when they do they loose their grip, making the vehicles traction worse which isnt good for stopping the vehicle as well. It is always good to make sure that the vehicle has good tires, windshield wipers and brakes in any kind of driving situation. When driving in fog, never use the high-beams. The fog is water molucules in the air and water molucules reflect, it may blind you or on-coming cars and cause an accident. It is best to Use low beams, fog lights (if equiped on the vehicle) and maintain a safe distance at a resonable speed. If you need to pull over for any reason during any of these road conditions, do so in a designated spot to keep you and everybody else safe.
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Alphonse Bertillon
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