Answer:
<u>b. learning occurs independently of reinforcement</u>
Explanation:
Edward C. Tolman was one of the famous American psychologists who was best known for his research on 'cognitive maps', latent learning theory, cognitive behaviorism, and intervening variable.
According to Tolman, an individual has the capability of doing more than merely responding to certain stimuli, instead, he or she acts on attitudes, beliefs, strive towards specific goals, and a few changing conditions. He was considered as the only behaviorists who don't accept the "stimulus-response theory", as he believed that reinforcement wasn't required for learning.
In the question above, the correct answer is option-b.
According to Yerkes-Dodson law if you had an important presentation coming up, you would want to be a bit nervous/aroused to perform your best.
According to this law there is a relationship between performance and arousal. The law goes to say that sometimes, people are able to do their best when they are a bit nervous.
But according to him, this would only work till a certain point because when the nervousness gets to be too much it could lower performance.
This is best applicable to athletes or some one who is waiting to write an exam.
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B. The rise of the Roman Empire
Answer: Talk about the difference
For Gottman the problem is not in conflicts, as they are common and inevitable, it is in the mechanisms that are activated when problems arise.
As a result, couples who break up often get stuck in negative emotions that lead to a self-destructive cycle; consistent in employing communication mechanisms that hurt and are ineffective in resolving or accepting the situation.
