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ElenaW [278]
2 years ago
9

How each programming language differs in terms of constructs, techniques, use and requirements?

Computers and Technology
1 answer:
Anuta_ua [19.1K]2 years ago
6 0

Programming languages are (designed to be) easily used by machines, but not people.

Natural languages (like English) are easily used by humans, but not machines.

Programming languages are unambiguous, while natural languages are often multiply ambiguous and require interpretation in context to be fully understood (also why it’s so hard to get machines to understand them). Natural languages are also creative and allow poetry, metaphor and other interpretations. Programming does allow some variation in style, but the meaning is not flexible.

Lojban (Wikipedia) is an artificial language designed to try to bridge the gap between these two types of languages. It is specifically unambiguous yet something that a human can pronounce and even speak meaningfully. It can be considered a somewhat successful experiment yet limited in functionality in some ways in both domains (and not a real substitute for a normal programming language, but perhaps useful as an interface).

Natural languages consist of sentences, usually declarative sentences expressing information in a sequence. Programming languages typically are not declarative but procedural, giving instructions to the machine to do something (like commands in natural languages). Rarely, programming languages are declarative, such as Prolog, where statements are given to the computer, then the evaluation consists of finding possible solutions that match those statements (generate a list of words based on possible combinations of letters as defined just by letter-combining rules, for example).

The vocabulary of natural languages is filled with conceptual terms. The vocabulary of programming languages is generally only ‘grammatical’/functional ‘words’ like basic comments, plus various custom-named things like variables and functions. There are no words like you’d look up in a dictionary to express something like ‘love’ or ‘happy’ or ‘sing’.

The grammatical structures vary in more ways than are easy to list here. But some of the most obvious factors are that words don’t have separable parts in programming languages (like English cat-s to form a plural) [=no morphology], and that via brackets, line breaks or other markers, embedding tends to be overtly and clearly marked on both sides for the parser in programming languages, whereas spoken languages usually only have one word (like “that”) linking embedded sentences, and sometimes no word at all. This is another reason that parsing human languages is so hard on a computer.

You could also look at Hockett’s design features and see which apply to programming languages: What is the difference between human and animal language?

In a very general sense, programming languages aren’t used for bidirectional communication and may not properly be considered “languages” in the same sense as natural languages. Just looking at Hockett’s features, they’re completely distinct in being written only, do not involve interchangeability between the speaker and hearer, do not have ‘duality of patterning’ meaning multiple layers of structure as sounds vs. phrases (phonology vs. syntax), and are not transmitted culturally (well, maybe). It’s just very hard to even try to make the comparison.

Most fundamentally, it is worth asking if programming languages even have meaning, or if they are just instructions. This is similar to the Chinese room thought experiment— given a book of instructions for how to translate Chinese, but without actually understanding it, would a human (or computer) with that book be considered to “know” Chinese? Probably not. A computer doesn’t “know” anything, it just does what the instructions tell it to. Therefore, programming languages have no semantics/meaning. They just are instructions, which translate into electronic signals, nothing more.

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State 3 file formats explain them in an understanding manner apart from Microsoft word and PDF
natita [175]

Answer:

Hope below explanations are enough.

Explanation:

1. JPEG (or JPG) - Joint Photographic Experts Group

JPEGs might be the most common file type you run across on the web, and more than likely the kind of image that is in your company's MS Word version of its letterhead. JPEGs are known for their "lossy" compression, meaning that the quality of the image decreases as the file size decreases.

You can use JPEGs for projects on the web, in Microsoft Office documents, or for projects that require printing at a high resolution. Paying attention to the resolution and file size with JPEGs is essential in order to produce a nice looking project.

2. PNG - Portable Network Graphics

PNGs are amazing for interactive documents such as web pages, but are not suitable for print. While PNGs are "lossless," meaning you can edit them and not lose quality, they are still low resolution.

The reason PNGs are used in most web projects is that you can save your image with more colors on a transparent background. This makes for a much sharper, web-quality image.

3. GIF - Graphics Interchange Format

GIFs are most common in their animated form, which are all the rage on Tumblr pages and in banner ads. It seems like every other day we have a new Grumpy Cat or Honey Boo Boo animated GIF. In their more basic form, GIFs are formed from up to 256 colors in the RGB colorspace. Due to the limited number of colors, the file size is drastically reduced.

This is a common file type for web projects where an image needs to load very quickly, as opposed to one that needs to retain a higher level of quality.

4. TIFF - Tagged Image File

A TIF is a large raster file that doesn't lose quality. This file type is known for using "lossless compression," meaning the original image data is maintained regardless of how often you might copy, re-save, or compress the original file.

Despite TIFF images' ability to recover their quality after manipulation, you should avoid using this file type on the web -- it can take forever to load. TIFF files are also commonly used when saving photographs for print.

5. PSD - Photoshop Document

PSDs are files that are created and saved in Adobe Photoshop, the most popular graphics editing software ever. This type of file contains "layers" that make modifying the image much easier to handle. This is also the program that generates the raster file types mentioned above.

The largest disadvantage to PSDs is that Photoshop works with raster images as opposed to vector images.

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Answer:

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Explanation:

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Answer: C. Cause and Effect Modelling.

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The Cause and Effect modelling approach explains that for every given action ( effect ), there was a prompting factor ( cause ).

In the case of Sendstars Company, the downward spiral in customer retention was as a result of ill -mannered staff. This effect, prompted the decision to have the employees trained on customer service.

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