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Richter's original magnitude scale (ML) was extended to observations of earthquakes of any distance and of focal depths ranging between 0 and 700 km. Because earthquakes excite both body waves, which travel into and through the Earth, and surface waves, which are constrained to follow the natural waveguide of the Earth's uppermost layers, two magnitude scales evolved - the MB and MS scales.
The standard body-wave magnitude formula is
MB = log10(A/T) + Q(D,h) ,
where A is the amplitude of ground motion (in microns); T is the corresponding period (in seconds); and Q(D,h) is a correction factor that is a function of distance, D (degrees), between epicenter and station and focal depth, h (in kilometers), of the earthquake. The standard surface-wave formula is
MS = log10 (A/T) + 1.66 log10 (D) + 3.30 .
There are many variations of these formulas that take into account effects of specific geographic regions so that the final computed magnitude is reasonably consistent with Richter's original definition of ML. Negative magnitude values are permissible.
1The green plants would all die out because they would not be able to get sunlight for energy. The rest of the earth would probably die from coldness as the sun is blocked.
26CO2 + 6H20 + (energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2 Carbon dioxide + water + energy from light produces glucose and oxygen.
Chemical factors: This is due to internal stimuli. Changes in the blood such as decrease in O2, increase in CO2 and decrease in PH cause impulse in the carotid artery which stimulates the respiratory centers in the medulla and cause breathing.
Mechanical factors: also called external stimuli. Compression of the fetal chest during delivery forces small amount of lung fluid out of the lungs. This increase in pressure in the chest draws air into the lungs.
An example of a structural adaptation for a zebra is A) The zebra herd constantly moves and is in the Company of other grazers for survival.
