Cortés he was the explorer who conquered the Aztec empire for Spain and ruled it or the answer would be Spain
It would be that "d. Muhammad was engaged in long-distance trade where he came into contact with monotheists" that likely would have influenced his acceptance of monotheism, since this allowed for him to gain new and challenging points of view.
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Governments suffered a fiscal toll given that they were forced to pay for food and shelter for poor refugees in their countries. The resulting crisis had profound consequence on government’s economies and social system given that they also affected the citizens