a) 250/1000 × 100 = 25%
b) Respiration, decomposition
Abiotic components of an ecosystem include everything except life which surrounds an individual and is not associated directly with the presence of other organisms these components are Material and Energy
Abiotic factors are further divided into three categories
1. Climatic factors
2. Topographic factors
3. Edaphic factors
And in forest there are all these factors present!
I thought it was (d) but I might be wrong