The opening twelve articles of the Charter are analogous to a 'Bill of Rights'. They contained such measures as a declaration of equality before the law, due process rights, religious toleration, freedom of the press, protection of private property, abolition of conscription. These principles, together with the retention of the Napoleonic Code, represent some of the permanent gains of theFrench Revolution.
Nevertheless, the concept of the judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation was undeveloped, and it was the responsibility of the legislature, not the courts, to defend these rights.[1] Freedom of the press, in particular, was subsequently restricted by harsh press censorship laws, which were deemed to violate the spirit of the charter.[2]
Moreover, religious toleration was limited by the special provision made for the Roman Catholic Church as the official state religion
