Ibn Ishaq added in his account: umm kulthum" I was sent with the sword before the (Last) Hour so that Allah is worshipped, Alone, without a partner." A Sahih Hadeeth; Sahih al-Jami.
Western authors, religious and political leaders, media personalities, etc., often use this Prophetic hadeeth to prove what they claim is Islam’s true aim, that is, to force non-Muslims to become Muslim. They also dwell on the fact that some [sic] Muslim Scholars stated that this Quranic Statement has been abrogated…
It seems that we live in an age of Muftis, where anyone and everyone gives religious verdicts on behalf o [sic] Islam, even those with the least knowledge about the religion of Islam. Even Pope Benedict issued his own Fatwa (religious opinion) on Ayah 2:256, by stating, "Emperor [Manuel III] must have known that Surah 2, 256 reads: ‘There is no compulsion in religion.’ According to some experts, this is probably one of the suras of the early period, when Mohammed was still powerless and under threat."
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Answer:
Higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)
Explanation:
Higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning) is not about the direct threaten of stimulus but it is about the indirect threaten of the stimulus. It involves disturbances in emotional and behavioral stimuli. This type of conditioning occurs with the people who faced any type of trauma in their life.
It occurs with the pairing of the situation with the traumatic situation. This conditioning includes negative emotions as well as less or neutral cues related to the situation. Thus the neutral cue creates the same disturbance as happened in the original situation.
Thus here in the above context, Fred's dog was conditioned at the sound of the bell for salvation. After that Fred associated the bell with another stimulus like a whistling sound.
Fred's dog even then salivate when it hears the sound of the whistle, he never heard before. This illustrates the second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning.
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