Answer: S- phase of cell cycle
Explanation:
Cell cycle is a cyclical process taken place in a cell leading to duplication of its DNA and division of cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.
The S phase of a cell cycle is an important part of the cycle which is found during interphase stage before either mitosis or meiosis.
The S phase of cell cycle is responsible for the replication of DNA. This replication DNA causes it to double before it enters mitosis or meiosis.
"The process of dissolving bone and returning its minerals to the bloodstream is known as resorption." It is the process by which osteoclasts break bone tissue and release the minerals, causing a transfer of calcium from bone tissue to the blood.
In the cycle of bone growth, resorption is the breakdown and assimilation of old bone. It remove hard bone tissue during the resorption (remodeling) process, and osteoblasts then lay down new bone cells.
Bone loss, or a reduction in bone mass and bone density, is caused by bone resorption. This may be brought on by health issues including hyperparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D, or even aging-related decreases in hormone synthesis.
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Answer:
Hepato- and nephrotoxicity of fluoride have been demonstrated in animals, but few studies have examined potential effects in humans. This population-based study examines the relationship between chronic low-level fluoride exposure and kidney and liver function among United States (U.S.) adolescents. This study aimed to evaluate whether greater fluoride exposure is associated with altered kidney and liver parameters among U.S. youth.
This cross-sectional study utilized data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2013–2016). We analyzed data from 1983 and 1742 adolescents who had plasma and water fluoride measures respectively and did not have kidney disease. Fluoride was measured in plasma and household tap water. Kidney parameters included estimated glomerular filtration rate (calculated by the original Schwartz formula), serum uric acid, and the urinary albumin to creatinine ratio. Liver parameters were assessed in serum and included alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, blood urea nitrogen, gamma-glutamyl transferase, and albumin. Survey-weighted linear regression examined relationships between fluoride exposure and kidney and liver parameters after covariate adjustment. A Holm-Bonferroni correction accounted for multiple comparisons.
The average age of adolescents was 15.4 years. Median water and plasma fluoride concentrations were 0.48 mg/L and 0.33 μmol/L respectively. A 1 μmol/L increase in plasma fluoride was associated with a 10.36 mL/min/1.73 m2 lower estimated glomerular filtration rate (95% CI: −17.50, −3.22; p = 0.05), a 0.29 mg/dL higher serum uric acid concentration (95% CI: 0.09, 0.50; p = 0.05), and a 1.29 mg/dL lower blood urea nitrogen concentration (95%CI: −1.87, −0.70; p < 0.001). A 1 mg/L increase in water fluoride was associated with a 0.93 mg/dL lower blood urea nitrogen concentration (95% CI: −1.44, −0.42; p = 0.007).
Fluoride exposure may contribute to complex changes in kidney and liver related parameters among U.S. adolescents. As the study is cross-sectional, reverse causality cannot be ruled out; therefore, altered kidney and/or liver function may impact bodily fluoride absorption and metabolic processes.
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They build up in the thylakoid, where they bond to each other to create ATP.
Not 100% about this but that's what i got.
