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WINSTONCH [101]
3 years ago
7

Which is a property of all atoms?

Chemistry
2 answers:
Oksana_A [137]3 years ago
5 0
B. A nucleus with a positive charge
Thepotemich [5.8K]3 years ago
4 0
B. a nucleus with a positive charge.
You might be interested in
1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 how many unpaired electrons are in the atom represented by the electron configuration above?
Sedbober [7]
It's a combination of factors:
Less electrons paired in the same orbital
More electrons with parallel spins in separate orbitals
Pertinent valence orbitals NOT close enough in energy for electron pairing to be stabilized enough by large orbital size
DISCLAIMER: Long answer, but it's a complicated issue, so... :)
A lot of people want to say that it's because a "half-filled subshell" increases stability, which is a reason, but not necessarily the only reason. However, for chromium, it's the significant reason.
It's also worth mentioning that these reasons are after-the-fact; chromium doesn't know the reasons we come up with; the reasons just have to be, well, reasonable.
The reasons I can think of are:
Minimization of coulombic repulsion energy
Maximization of exchange energy
Lack of significant reduction of pairing energy overall in comparison to an atom with larger occupied orbitals
COULOMBIC REPULSION ENERGY
Coulombic repulsion energy is the increased energy due to opposite-spin electron pairing, in a context where there are only two electrons of nearly-degenerate energies.
So, for example...
↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−− is higher in energy than
↑
↓
−−−−−

↓
↑
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−
To make it easier on us, we can crudely "measure" the repulsion energy with the symbol
Π
c
. We'd just say that for every electron pair in the same orbital, it adds one
Π
c
unit of destabilization.
When you have something like this with parallel electron spins...
↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−
It becomes important to incorporate the exchange energy.
EXCHANGE ENERGY
Exchange energy is the reduction in energy due to the number of parallel-spin electron pairs in different orbitals.
It's a quantum mechanical argument where the parallel-spin electrons can exchange with each other due to their indistinguishability (you can't tell for sure if it's electron 1 that's in orbital 1, or electron 2 that's in orbital 1, etc), reducing the energy of the configuration.
For example...
↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−− is lower in energy than
↑
↓
−−−−−

↓
↑
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−
To make it easier for us, a crude way to "measure" exchange energy is to say that it's equal to
Π
e
for each pair that can exchange.
So for the first configuration above, it would be stabilized by
Π
e
(
1
↔
2
), but the second configuration would have a
0
Π
e
stabilization (opposite spins; can't exchange).
PAIRING ENERGY
Pairing energy is just the combination of both the repulsion and exchange energy. We call it
Π
, so:
Π
=
Π
c
+
Π
e

Inorganic Chemistry, Miessler et al.
Inorganic Chemistry, Miessler et al.
Basically, the pairing energy is:
higher when repulsion energy is high (i.e. many electrons paired), meaning pairing is unfavorable
lower when exchange energy is high (i.e. many electrons parallel and unpaired), meaning pairing is favorable
So, when it comes to putting it together for chromium... (
4
s
and
3
d
orbitals)
↑
↓
−−−−−
↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−
compared to
↑
↓
−−−−−
↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−

↑
↓
−−−−−
is more stable.
For simplicity, if we assume the
4
s
and
3
d
electrons aren't close enough in energy to be considered "nearly-degenerate":
The first configuration has
Π
=
10
Π
e
.
(Exchanges:
1
↔
2
,
1
↔
3
,
1
↔
4
,
1
↔
5
,
2
↔
3
,

2
↔
4
,
2
↔
5
,
3
↔
4
,
3
↔
5
,
4
↔
5
)
The second configuration has
Π
=
Π
c
+
6
Π
e
.
(Exchanges:
1
↔
2
,
1
↔
3
,
1
↔
4
,
2
↔
3
,
2
↔
4
,
3
↔
4
)
Technically, they are about
3.29 eV
apart (Appendix B.9), which means it takes about
3.29 V
to transfer a single electron from the
3
d
up to the
4
s
.
We could also say that since the
3
d
orbitals are lower in energy, transferring one electron to a lower-energy orbital is helpful anyways from a less quantitative perspective.
COMPLICATIONS DUE TO ORBITAL SIZE
Note that for example,
W
has a configuration of
[
X
e
]
5
d
4
6
s
2
, which seems to contradict the reasoning we had for
Cr
, since the pairing occurred in the higher-energy orbital.
But, we should also recognize that
5
d
orbitals are larger than
3
d
orbitals, which means the electron density can be more spread out for
W
than for
Cr
, thus reducing the pairing energy
Π
.
That is,
Π
W
5 0
2 years ago
Read 2 more answers
An electron can be added to halogen atom to force a halide ion with
Lilit [14]

An electron can be added to halogen atom to force a halide ion with 8 valence electrons

<h3>What is an atom?</h3>

An atom can be defined as the smallest part of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction.

However whenever, an electron is added to halogen atom to force a halide ion with 8 different valence electrons

So therefore; an electron can be added to halogen atom to force a halide ion with 8 valence electrons

Learn more about halogens:

brainly.com/question/18276987

#SPJ1

4 0
2 years ago
PLEASE HELP MEEE I WILL MARK BRAINLIST FOR THIS ITS SUPER SIMPLE....BUT U MUST TYPE EVERYTHING
Alina [70]

Answer:

Threatened Species: A threatened species is a species at risk but not yet endangered. California sea otters were classififed as a threatened species. Laws were passed to protect the otters and now they have increased their population size.

Invasive Species: One of the main causes of extinction and endangered species is the introduction of an exotic species. New exotic species are called invasive species. Invasive species can disrupt food chains, carry disease, prey on native species directly, and out-compete native species for limited resources, like food.

Extinction: If a population decreases too much in numbers, they disappear. Extinct species mean that the species has died out and no individuals left. An example of extinction: New Zealand was once home to a bird called the Giant Moa. Humans settled as their population increased the Moa population decreased. The species is now extinct.

Explanation:

7 0
2 years ago
Read 2 more answers
Calculate the pH and pOH of 500.0 mL of a phosphate solution that is 0.285 M HPO42– and 0.285 M PO43–. (Ka for HPO42- = 4.2x10-1
jekas [21]

Answer: when concentrations of acid and base are same, pH = pKa

PH = 12.38 pOH = 1.62

Explanation: pKa= -log(Ka)= 12.38. PH + pOH = 14.00

8 0
3 years ago
What state does a maple tree enter during the winter?
Crank
D. dormancy is the correct answer
3 0
3 years ago
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