A force has both size and direction.
<span>Oxidation is the loss of electrons and corresponds to an increase in oxidation state. A reduction is the gain of electrons and corresponds to a decrease in oxidation state. Balancing redox reactions can be more complicated than balancing other types of reactions because both the mass and charge must be balanced. Redox reactions occurring in aqueous solutions can be balanced by using a special procedure called the half-reaction method of balancing. In this procedure, the overall equation is broken down into two half-reactions: one for oxidation and the other for reduction. The half-reactions are balanced individually and then added together so that the number of electrons generated in the oxidation half-reaction is the same as the number of electrons consumed in the reduction half-reaction.</span>
They define acids as proton donors, and bases as proton acceptors
If you were to have:
HNO3 + H2O -> H3O+. + NO3-
You can see that the nitric acid (HNO3) gave a hydrogen ion which has 1 proton, 0 neutrons and 0 electrons to the water so we just say that it gave a proton.
Now let's see a base
NH3 + H2O -> NH4+ + OH-
Now, you can see that the ammonia (NH3) gained a hydrogen ion (proton) from the water to become ammonium(NH4). which means it accepted a proton
That's basically it. Feel free to ask if you have any further questions
The Heck reaction is a coupling reaction that combines an unsaturated halide with an alkene in the presence of base and palladium catalyst to provide a substituted alkene. It an important reaction as it forms a carbon-carbon bond and allows substitution on sp² hybridized carbons.
In this example, we have bromobenzene reacting with propene and are told that two constitutional isomers are formed. The expected product is the first one shown which has the benzene substitute onto the terminal end of the alkene. The isomer by-product that is formed is substitution onto the central carbon of the propene which leads to a product with a terminal alkene.