The life course perspective is a somewhat new way of thinking about how an individual’s life
is determined through the occurrence of certain life events (Benson, 2001). The life course
perspective can best be conceptualized as viewing life events in the context of life stages,
turning points, and pathways, all of which are embedded in social institutions (Elder, 1985).
Integral to the life course perspective are two main concepts: trajectories and transitions. A
trajectory is a pathway over the life course, which involves long-term patterns of events, such
as employment or family history. A transition, in contrast, involves the short-term events, or
turning points, that make up specific life changes, such as marriage, divorce, or parenthood
(Elder, 1985; Thornberry, 1997). Transitions play a significant role in the direction of future
trajectories (Elder, 1985; Sampson & Laub, 1990); a person’s adaptation to a particular
transition can lead to modifications and redirections in subsequent trajectories (Elder, 1985).
Therefore, experiences in childhood affect events in adolescence and adulthood, just as
events in adolescence or adulthood can modify future trajectories (Sampson & Laub, 1990).
Given this, transitions or events at various times in the life course can have a lasting impact
on numerous outcomes during the life course through the modification of one’s larger
pathways or trajectories (Thornberry, 1997).
This chapter will take a look at the life course perspective and how its emergence has
affected criminological theory and the role of education as a preventative factor in juvenile
delinquency. Section 7.2 discusses the criminological foundations of the life course
perspective in addition to the variations of the life course perspective that can be found in
criminological theory. Section 7.3 outlines the impact that social bonding has on an
individual’s life course according to Sampson and Laub. Section 7.4 discusses other
theoretical constructs utilized in the theory. Section 7.5 summarizes the empirical support
that can be found for the theory in the literature. Section 7.6 looks specifically at how local
life circumstances impact an individual’s life course, specifically desistance from crime.
Section 7.7 focuses on the local life circumstance of education, and Section 7.8 outline
The Civil Rights Movement convinced scholars that some social movements do not result from a unification of psychological needs but need to be explained by a broader socio-economical perspective. In such an explanation, the needs of the individuals do not have to coincide with the needs of the group as a whole.
Primary appraisal appraisal involves judging whether a stressor is either a threat or a challenge.
<h3>Define Primary appraisal . </h3>
The cognitive process known as primary appraisal takes place when a person evaluates whether or not an incident is upsetting and significant to them. An assessment of the event's threat, likelihood of harm or loss, and challenge are made at this phase.
<h3>Describe Primary and secondary evaluation.</h3>
It is important to first assess whether the stressor is dangerous. The individual's assessment of the tools or coping mechanisms at his or her disposal for dealing with any perceived risks constitutes secondary appraisal.
In economics, positive statements consist of objective statements that individuals can put into test, amend, or reject by referring to the accessible evidence. Positive economics handles unbiased explanation and both testing and refusal of theories. In this case, none of the examples represent a positive statement.
