The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Independently discovered in 1851 by William Kelly, the process had also been used outside of Europe for hundreds of years, but not on an industrial scale.
The Carolingian Empire covered much of the Western and Central Europe but it collapsed in less than hundred years after the death of Charlemagne in 814. Several factors led to the fall of the Carolingian Empire. The division of Frankish lands among the male members of the Carolingian dynasty was a major factor. The Carolingians extended their rule over most Western and Central Europe in less than one half of a century and became regarded as the renewers of the Roman Empire after the Imperial coronation of Charlemagne in 800. The Carolingian Empire achieved its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Charlemagne (768-814) who added Lombardy, Saxony, Danubian Plain and Spanish March to the Realm of the Franks. However, Charlemagne’s empire started to decline already under his successor Louis the Pious (814-840) and collapsed by the end of the 9th century.
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it was a multi-ethnic and multi-linguistic empire
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The Coast Ranges are rugged, geologically young mountains formed by faulting and folding and are composed mainly of granitic rock; the northern third is glaciated. N of San Francisco the ranges are humid and thickly forested; the southern parts are dry and covered with brush and grass.
