In photosynthesis, the movement of protons from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen is proton gradient and is coupled to<u> transfer of </u><u>protons</u>.
Protons are transported across the thylakoid membrane and into the lumen through the electron transport chain (the space inside the thylakoid disk). Protons are simultaneously removed from the stroma by reduction of NADPH and added to the lumen via water splitting (the space outside the thylakoids). Protons are pumped from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen as a result of the electron passing through the first link in the electron transport chain. A fourth protein complex in the thylakoid membrane, ATP synthase, then uses the energy stored in this proton gradient to produce ATP. This protein complex, like the mitochondrial enzyme, links proton flow back across the membrane to the creation of ATP.
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Water waves are an example of waves that involve a combination of both longitudinal and transverse motions. As a wave travels through the waver, the particles travel in clockwise circles. The radius of the circles decreases as the depth into the water increases. The animation at right shows a water wave travelling from left to right in a region where the depth of the water is greater than the wavelength of the waves. I have identified two particles in orange to show that each particle indeed travels in a clockwise circle as the wave passes.
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Explanation:
The genes in DNA encode protein molecules, which are the "workhorses" of the cell, carrying out all the functions necessary for life. For example, enzymes, including those that metabolize nutrients and synthesize new cellular constituents, as well as DNA polymerases and other enzymes that make copies of DNA during cell division, are all proteins.
In the simplest sense, expressing a gene means manufacturing its corresponding protein, and this multilayered process has two major steps. In the first step, the information in DNA is transferred to a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule by way of a process called transcription. During transcription, the DNA of a gene serves as a template for complementary base-pairing, and an enzyme called RNA polymerase II catalyzes the formation of a pre-mRNA molecule, which is then processed to form mature mRNA (Figure 1). The resulting mRNA is a single-stranded copy of the gene, which next must be translated into a protein molecule.
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The effects of weathering disintegrate and alter mineral and rocks near or at the earth's surface. This shapes the earth's surface through such processes as wind and rain erosion or cracks caused by freezing and thawing. Each process has a distinct effect on rocks and minerals.
