Answer:
(a) 
(b) 15 hours
Explanation:
half life, T = 12 hours
No = 19 g
(a) Let N be the amount remaining after time t.
Let λ be the decay constant.

The equation of radioactivity used here is given by


(b) N = 8 gram
Substitute the values in above equation

λ = 0.0577 per hour
So, 

Take natural log on both the sides
- 0.0577 t = - 0.865
t = 15 hours
As the first astronaut throws the ball, lets assume it goes with v velocity and the mass of the ball be m
the momentum comes out be mv, thus to conserve that momentum the astronaut will move opposite to the direction of the ball's motion with the velocity mv/M (where M is the mass of the astronaut).
This is picture describe as
More current mean less resistance
Less resistance mean more current