Answer:
Explanation:
(A) PaO₂ below normal: PaO₂ is used to describe the partial pressure of oxygen dissolved in the blood. When it is below normal, it indicates the individual isn't getting enough oxygen hence there is low pressure of dissolved oxygen in the blood. This sign/symptom falls under the Respiratory/oxygenation data cluster.
(B) Dyspnea on exertion: Dyspnea is a term used to describe shortness of breath while dyspnea on exertion is when an individual runs out of breath as a result of not been able to breath deeply/properly during or after an exercise. This sign/symptom also falls under the Respiration/oxygenation data cluster.
(C) Productive cough: This is a type of cough that produces/forces mucus out of the airway (thereby clearing the airway). This sign/symptom from this description is also Respiratory/oxygenation data cluster.
(D) Oxygenation saturation 92%: Oxygen saturation is when the body can supply enough oxygen to the cells and tissues within it's system. This sign/symptom is also a Respiratory/oxygenation data cluster.
(E) Feels "too tired to do much": This can also be referred to as fatigue. This is usually as a result of inadequate energy produced (usually from glycolysis) in the body. This sign/symptom, from this description, is a Reduced energy level data cluster.
(F) Requires frequent rest periods: This usually occurs as a result of imbalance in the body's metabolism. Here, the body uses more energy than it produces; more anabolic processes (energy requiring) than catabolic processes (energy produced/released). This sign/symptom, from this description, is a Reduced energy level data cluster.
Answer:
There are 20 different standard L-α-amino acids used by cells for protein construction. Amino acids, as their name indicates, contain both a basic amino group and an acidic carboxyl group. This difunctionality allows the individual amino acids to join in long chains by forming peptide bonds: amide bonds between the -NH2 of one amino acid and the -COOH of another. Sequences with fewer than 50 amino acids are generally referred to as peptides, while the terms, protein and polypeptide, are used for longer sequences. A protein can be made up of one or more polypeptide molecules. The end of the peptide or protein sequence with a free carboxyl group is called the carboxy-terminus or C-terminus. The terms, amino-terminus and N-terminus, describe the end of the sequence with a free α-amino group.
The amino acids differ in structure by the substituent on their side chains. These side chains confer different chemical, physical, and structural properties to the final peptide or protein. The structures of the 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins are shown in Figure 1. Each amino acid has both a one-letter and three-letter abbreviation. These abbreviations are commonly used to simplify the written sequence of a peptide or protein.
figure1-Protein-Structure
Depending on the side-chain substituent, an amino acid can be classified as being acidic, basic or neutral. Although 20 amino acids are required for synthesis of various proteins found in humans, we can synthesize only ten. The remaining 10 are called essential amino acids and must be obtained in the diet.
The amino acid sequence of a protein is encoded in DNA. Proteins are synthesized by a series of steps called transcription (the use of a DNA strand to make a complimentary messenger RNA strand – mRNA) and translation (the mRNA sequence is used as a template to guide the synthesis of the chain of amino acids which make up the protein). Often, post-translational modifications, such as glycosylation or phosphorylation, occur which are necessary for the biological function of the protein. While the amino acid sequence makes up the primary structure of the protein, the chemical/biological properties of the protein are very much dependent on the three-dimensional or tertiary structure.
Answer:
Constitutive activation is the alteration of a protein or signaling pathway such that it is functional or engaged even in the absence of an upstream activating event. For example, RasD is constitutively active because it cannot bind GAP and therefore remains in the GTP-bound, active state even when cells are not stimulated by growth factor to activate a receptor tyrosine kinase.
Constitutively active Ras is cancer promoting because cells will proliferate in the absence of growth factors, and thus normal regulatory mechanisms for cell proliferation are bypassed.
(a) A mutation that resulted in Smad3 binding Smad4, entering the nucleus, and activating transcription independent of phosphorylation by the TGFβ receptor would render Smad3 constitutively active.
(b) A mutation that made MAPK active as a kinase and able to enter the nucleus without being phosphorylated by MEK would render MAPK constitutively active.
(c) A mutation that prevented NF-KB from binding to IK-B or that allowed NF-KB to enter the nucleus and regulate transcription even when bound to IK-B would render NF-KB constitutively active.
A) Mitochondria - because they are double membraned and the inner one is highly folded into 'cristae'
Composting is a form of waste that uses organic materials to put into plants in order to help them grow and flourish. It saves energy, and it doesn't give off many gasses to help the Earth.
However, it is ineffective on the large scale and cannot be mass produced to help Earth instantly because of the large amounts of inorganic materials.
