A) According to the nebular theory, the Solar System formed from a huge gaseous nebula which at a certain point was perturbated. Atoms and molecules started colliding, forming planetesimals (a sort of big rocks). The planetesimals were attracted to each other by gravity, forming bigger warm almost spherical objects called protoplanets, which at the end cooled down forming planets.
Therefore the correct answer is "all of the above".
b) The planets closer to the Sun were (and still are) subject to higher temperatures, due to their close distance to the Sun. In these conditions, rocky materials undergo condensation, while iced gaseous materials undergo vaporization. In the outer parts of the Solar System temperatures are too low to allow these transformations.
The correct answer is again "all of the above".
True. Electromagnetic energy does not require a medium.
