The low-mass elements, hydrogen and helium, were produced in the hot, dense conditions of the birth of the universe itself. The birth, life, and death of a star is described in terms of nuclear reactions. The chemical elements that make up the matter we observe throughout the universe were created in these reactions.
The number of bonds for a neutral atom is equal to the number of electrons in the full valence shell (2 or 8 electrons) minus the number of valence electrons. This method works because each covalent bond that an atom forms adds another electron to an atoms valence shell without changing its charge.
A logarithmic scale is a nonlinear scale used when there is a large range of quantities
