Specific heat. The definition of specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1K or 1°C.
The question is poor. Light doesn't refract on its way THROUGH anything. It refracts at the boundary BETWEEN two different media. The effect is greatest where the ratio of the speeds of light in the two media is greatest. On your list, that would be at the boundary between air or space and glass.
The force required is
(15 kg) x (the acceleration, in m/s²) newtons.