There are a few ways to do this- unfortunately different fields are better at it than others! Medical research is generally pretty good, some other fields likewise very good, some not as much.
Basically, though, what they do is use standadisation- they agree on the terminology, units of data, statistical measures, and so forth, that will be used in that scientific field. As much as possible, every scientist in the field uses those standards so everyone working in the field should recognise it.
For instance, in clinical trials, there is very good agreement worldwide on what the different metrics we use are- e.g. in cancer research, we usually want to know the 5-year survival rate (meaning the percentage of patients still alive 5 years after diagnosis). So anyone with the right training should be able to pick up a clinical trial report and understand what the results are and what the report is saying.
Answer:
The maximum length during the motion is 
Explanation:
From the question we are told that
The mass is 
The vertical spring length is 
The unstretched length is 
The initial speed is 
The new length of the spring 
The spring constant k is mathematically represented as

Where F is the force applied 
y is the difference in weight which is 
The negative sign is because the displacement of the spring (i.e its extension occurs against the force F)
Now substituting values accordingly


The elastic potential energy is given as 
where D is this the is the displacement
Since Energy is conserved the total elastic potential energy would be

Substituting value accordingly




So to obtain total length we would add the unstretched length
So we have

Answer:

Explanation:
Rydberg formula is used to calculate the wavelengths of the spectral lines of many chemical elements. For the hydrogen, is defined as:

Where
is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen and
,
are the lower energy state and the higher energy state, respectively.

Answer:
The answer is below
Explanation:
Newton's law of gravity states that the force between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The law is expressed by the formula:

The masses and distances for this question is in common units, Therefore the result would be in ratios
a) 4 MEarth / 2 MSolar / 3 AU
The force (F) = (4 * 3) / 3² = 4/3
b) 1 MEarth / 1 MSolar / 1 AU
The force (F) = (1 * 1) / 1² = 1
c) 1 MEarth / 2 MSolar / 2 AU
The force (F) = (1 * 2) / 2² = 1/2