We write DE = q+w, where DE is the internal energy change and q and w are heat and work, respectively.
(b)Under what conditions will the quantities q and w be negative numbers?
q is negative when heat flows from the system to the surroundings, and w is negative when the system does work on the surroundings.
As an aside: In applying the first law, do we need to measure the internal energy of a system? Explain.
The absolute internal energy of a system cannot be measured, at least in any practical sense. The internal energy encompasses the kinetic energy of all moving particles in the system, including subatomic particles, as well as the electrostatic potential energies between all these particles. We can measure the change in internal energy (DE) as the result of a chemical or physical change, but we cannot determine the absolute internal energy of either the initial or the final state. The first law allows us to calculate the change in internal energy during a transformation by calculating the heat and work exchanged between the system and its surroundings.
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Electronnegativity increase because the number of charges on the nucleus increases. Which attracts the bonding amount of electrons more.
Each shell contains a fixed number of electrons. The general formula of the number of electrons can be hold in n-th shell is 2n². 5th shell can hold 2x5² = 50 number of electrons.
1st shell contains 2 X 1²= 2 number of electrons, 2nd shell contains 2 X 2²=8 number of electrons, 3rd shell contains 2 X 3²=18 number of electrons, 4th shell contains 2 X 4²=32 number of electrons, 5th shell contains 2 X 5²=50 number of electrons and so on.
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